Imagine you're walking through a forest.
想象你正穿行在森林中。
I'm guessing you're thinking of a collection of trees, what we foresters call a stand, with their rugged stems and their beautiful crowns.
我猜你想的是一大片树，我们林业工作者称之为“林分”，它们有着遒劲的枝干和美丽的树冠。
Yes, trees are the foundation of forests, but a forest is much more than what you see, and today I want to change the way you think about forests.
是的，树是森林的基础，但是森林可比你看到的复杂多了，而今天我想改变一下你们对森林的看法。
You see, underground there is this other world,
你知道吗，森林的地下是另外一个世界，
a world of infinite biological pathways that connect trees and allow them to communicate and allow the forest to behave as though it's a single organism.
一个拥有无限的生物通路的世界，这些通路把树木连接起来，使得它们可以彼此沟通，也使森林表现得好像一个单独的有机体。
It might remind you of a sort of intelligence.
这可能会让你想到某种程度的智慧。
How do I know this? Here's my story. I grew up in the forests of British Columbia.
我是怎么知道这些的呢？来听听我的故事吧。我是在不列颠哥伦比亚省的森林中长大的。
I used to lay on the forest floor and stare up at the tree crowns. They were giants. My grandfather was a giant, too.
那时我总喜欢躺在森林的地面上，向上望着那些树冠。它们都是巨人。我的祖父也是个巨人。
He was a horse logger, and he used to selectively cut cedar poles from the inland rainforest.
他是一名伐木工，他以前曾在内陆雨林有选择性地砍伐杉木。
Grandpa taught me about the quiet and cohesive ways of the woods, and how my family was knit into it. So I followed in grandpa's footsteps.
爷爷教会我了解树木间安静而紧密连接的沟通方式，以及我们家族是如何融入其中的。所以我也追随了爷爷的脚步。
He and I had this curiosity about forests, and my first big "aha" moment was at the outhouse by our lake.
他和我都有关于森林的好奇心，我的第一次“顿悟”时刻，是在我们湖边的外屋的时候。
Our poor dog Jigs had slipped and fallen into the pit.
我们可怜的狗狗吉格斯，脚一滑跌进了一个坑里。
So grandpa ran up with his shovel to rescue the poor dog.
爷爷匆忙抄起一把铁铲，跑过去救那只可怜的狗。
He was down there, swimming in the muck. But as grandpa dug through that forest floor,
那只狗掉进了深处，在淤泥里挣扎。但在爷爷挖开森林的地面的时候，
I became fascinated with the roots, and under that, what I learned later was the white mycelium and under that the red and yellow mineral horizons.
我却被那些露出的树根深深地吸引了，我后来发现了在树根下面有很多白色的菌丝，再下面就是红色和黄色的矿质土层了。
Eventually, grandpa and I rescued the poor dog,
当然最终，我和爷爷救出了那只可怜的狗，
but it was at that moment that I realized that that palette of roots and soil was really the foundation of the forest.
但也就是在那时我意识到，正是树根和土壤的混合，构成了森林的基础。
And I wanted to know more. So I studied forestry.
于是我就想了解更多。所以我开始学习林业学。
But soon I found myself working alongside the powerful people in charge of the commercial harvest.
但后来很快我发现我的工作，是在那些负责商业化采集的、那些有权有势的人周围。
The extent of the clear-cutting was alarming, and I soon found myself conflicted by my part in it.
在森林中皆伐的范围已经敲响了警钟，我很快意识到我所处位置的矛盾性。
Not only that, the spraying and hacking of the aspens and birches to make way for the more commercially valuable planted pines and firs was astounding.
不仅如此，为了种植更具有商业价值的松树和冷杉，从而喷死或者砍伐掉山杨和桦树的规模也非常让人震惊。
It seemed that nothing could stop this relentless industrial machine.
看上去好像没什么能阻止这些无情的工业机器了。
So I went back to school, and I studied my other world.
所以我回到了学校，转而研究我的“新世界”。
You see, scientists had just discovered in the laboratory in vitro that one pine seedling root could transmit carbon to another pine seedling root.
你知道，科学家们那时已经在实验室的试管中发现了，一棵松树的幼苗根系可以将碳转移到另一颗松树的幼苗根系上。
But this was in the laboratory, and I wondered, could this happen in real forests? I thought yes.
但这仅仅是在实验室里，所以我想：这也会发生在真正的森林里吗？我觉得是的。
Trees in real forests might also share information below ground.
在真正的森林中，树木可能还会在地下交流信息。
But this was really controversial, and some people thought I was crazy, and I had a really hard time getting research funding.
但这个想法其实挺有争议的，一些人觉得我疯了，所以我筹集科研经费的那段日子真的很艰难。
But I persevered, and I eventually conducted some experiments deep in the forest, 25 years ago.
但我坚持了下来，而且我最终在森林的深处成功做出了一些实验，那是在25年前。
I grew 80 replicates of three species: paper birch, Douglas fir, and western red cedar.
那时我种了三种树，一共80棵：有纸皮桦、花旗松和西部红杉。
I figured the birch and the fir would be connected in a belowground web, but not the cedar. It was in its own other world.
我认为纸皮桦和花旗松在地下的网络中应该是能交流的，但是西部红杉应该是不行的。西部红杉比较“与世隔绝”。
And I gathered my apparatus, and I had no money, so I had to do it on the cheap.
我收拾起我的设备仪器，我那时没钱啊，所以我决定得省着点。
So I went to Canadian Tire -- and I bought some plastic bags and duct tape and shade cloth, a timer, a paper suit, a respirator.
所以我去了加拿大轮胎公司--我买了一些塑料袋、一些布基胶带和遮光布、一个计时器、一件纸套装和一个呼吸器。
And then I borrowed some high-tech stuff from my university: a Geiger counter, a scintillation counter, a mass spectrometer, microscopes.
然后我又从我的大学借了一些高科技的东西：一个盖革计数器、一个闪烁计数器、一个质谱仪和几个显微镜。
And then I got some really dangerous stuff:
然后我又拿了一些非常危险的东西：
syringes full of radioactive carbon-14 carbon dioxide gas and some high pressure bottles of the stable isotope carbon-13 carbon dioxide gas.
几支充满了放射性碳14的二氧化碳气体的注射器和几个高压气瓶，里面充满了稳定性同位素碳13的二氧化碳气体。
But I was legally permitted.
不过我这么做是合法的哦。
Oh, and I forgot some stuff, important stuff: the bug spray, the bear spray, the filters for my respirator. Oh well.
哦对了，我还忘说了几样东西，很重要的东西：喷雾杀虫剂、防熊喷雾剂和我呼吸器的过滤网。好了。
The first day of the experiment, we got out to our plot and a grizzly bear and her cub chased us off.
实验的第一天，我们来到了实验地点，突然一头灰熊和她的熊宝宝出现，把我们赶跑了。
And I had no bear spray. But you know, this is how forest research in Canada goes.
然后我还没带防熊喷雾剂。但你知道吗，在加拿大做森林研究其实就是这样的。
So I came back the next day, and mama grizzly and her cub were gone.
所以第二天我又回来了，灰熊妈妈和熊宝宝没在。
So this time, we really got started, and I pulled on my white paper suit, I put on my respirator, and then I put the plastic bags over my trees.
这一次我们可以真正开始实验了，我穿上我的白纸套装工作服，带上呼吸器，然后给我的树都罩上了塑料袋。
I got my giant syringes, and I injected the bags with my tracer isotope carbon dioxide gases, first the birch.
我拿出我那些大注射器，往袋子里面注入了含有示踪同位素的二氧化碳气体，首先是纸皮桦。
I injected carbon-14, the radioactive gas, into the bag of birch.
我往罩纸皮桦的袋子里面打入了有放射性碳14的气体。
And then for fir, I injected the stable isotope carbon-13 carbon dioxide gas.
然后是花旗松，我往他们的袋子中注射了含有稳定性同位素碳13的二氧化碳。
I used two isotopes, because I was wondering whether there was two-way communication going on between these species.
我用了两种同位素，因为我不知道这两种树之间的交流是否是双向的。
I got to the final bag, the 80th replicate, and all of a sudden mama grizzly showed up again.
当我走向最后一个袋子时，也就是第80棵样本，突然间那头灰熊妈妈又出现了。
And she started to chase me, and I had my syringes above my head, and I was swatting the mosquitos,
然后她开始追我，我把我们的那些注射器举过头顶，扑打着周围无数的蚊子，
and I jumped into the truck, and I thought, "This is why people do lab studies."
然后跳上了卡车，然后我想，“这就是为什么人们喜欢在实验室做实验的原因吧。”
I waited an hour. I figured it would take this long for the trees to suck up the CO2 through photosynthesis,
我等了一小时。我觉得这个时间差不多可以让那些树通过光合作用吸收二氧化碳，
turn it into sugars, send it down into their roots, and maybe, I hypothesized, shuttle that carbon belowground to their neighbors.
转换生成糖，再把糖送到它们的根，然后也许，我也是猜测，把那些碳元素从地下传给它们的邻居。
After the hour was up, I rolled down my window, and I checked for mama grizzly.
一小时的时间到了之后，我摇下了车窗，看看灰熊妈妈还在不在。
Oh good, she's over there eating her huckleberries. So I got out of the truck and I got to work.
哦太棒了，她在挺远的地方吃她的蓝莓呢。所以我下了卡车继续我的工作。
I went to my first bag with the birch. I pulled the bag off.
我走到第一个罩上袋子的那棵桦树旁边。把袋子扯了下来。
I ran my Geiger counter over its leaves. Kkhh! Perfect. The birch had taken up the radioactive gas. Then the moment of truth.
我在那棵树的叶子旁边用盖革计数器检测一下。咔！完美。那棵桦树已经完全吸收了放射性的二氧化碳。然后就是见证真相的时刻了。
I went over to the fir tree. I pulled off its bag.
我走向一棵花旗松。扯下树上那个袋子。
I ran the Geiger counter up its needles, and I heard the most beautiful sound. Kkhh!
在它的针叶旁边用盖革计数器进行检测，然后我又听到了那最悦耳的声音。咔！
It was the sound of birch talking to fir, and birch was saying, "Hey, can I help you?"
这就是纸皮桦对花旗松说话的声音，纸皮桦说：“嘿，我能帮你点什么？”
And fir was saying, "Yeah, can you send me some of your carbon? Because somebody threw a shade cloth over me."
然后花旗松回应它：“啊对了，你能给我点你的碳吗？因为刚才有人用遮光布把我罩住了。”
I went up to cedar, and I ran the Geiger counter over its leaves, and as I suspected, silence.
接着我又走到西部红杉旁边，我用盖革计数器在它的叶子旁边检测了一下，结果正如我猜测的一样，一片寂静。
Cedar was in its own world. It was not connected into the web interlinking birch and fir.
西部红杉还真的是与世隔绝的。它并没有连接到纸皮桦与花旗松互连的网络中。
I was so excited, I ran from plot to plot and I checked all 80 replicates. The evidence was clear.
我特别激动，我在那80棵样本之间跑来跑去，对所有的树都进行了检测。最后的结果显而易见。
The C-13 and C-14 was showing me that paper birch and Douglas fir were in a lively two-way conversation.
碳13和碳14的流向告诉我，纸皮桦和花旗松之间的交流是双向的。
It turns out at that time of the year, in the summer,
结果还表明在每年的这个时间，在夏天的时候，
that birch was sending more carbon to fir than fir was sending back to birch, especially when the fir was shaded.
纸皮桦给花旗松送的碳比花旗松反送给它的要多，特别是当花旗松见不到阳光的时候。
And then in later experiments, we found the opposite, that fir was sending more carbon to birch than birch was sending to fir,
而在随后的实验中，我们发现了相反的情况，花旗松给纸皮桦送的碳比纸皮桦给它的碳多，
and this was because the fir was still growing while the birch was leafless.
这是因为当纸皮桦树叶掉光了的时候，花旗松还在不停的生长。
So it turns out the two species were interdependent, like yin and yang.
这就说明这两种树其实是相互依赖的，就像“阴”和“阳”。
And at that moment, everything came into focus for me.
在那个时候，事情开始变得清晰起来。
I knew I had found something big, something that would change the way we look at how trees interact in forests,
我知道我有了重大发现，这个发现可以改变我们对森林中树木互动方式的看法，
from not just competitors but to cooperators.
树木之间不仅有竞争关系，同时也有合作关系。
And I had found solid evidence of this massive belowground communications network, the other world.
并且我当时已经找到了关于在那个世界中，树木的巨大地下交流网络的确凿的证据。

Now, I truly hoped and believed that my discovery would change how we practice forestry,
现在，我真诚地希望和相信，我的发现能够改变我们的林业实践活动，
from clear-cutting and herbiciding to more holistic and sustainable methods, methods that were less expensive and more practical.
能够让我们放弃皆伐和大范围的使用除草剂，转而采用一些更全面和更可持续的方法，这些方法更经济，也更实用。
What was I thinking? I'll come back to that.
当时我在想什么呢？我等一下会说到。
So how do we do science in complex systems like forests?
那么，在像森林这样复杂的系统中应该怎么做科学研究呢？
Well, as forest scientists, we have to do our research in the forests, and that's really tough, as I've shown you.
其实，作为林业学家，我们就是要实实在在地在森林里做研究，即使就像我刚才给你们讲的，你所面对的环境会非常恶劣。
And we have to be really good at running from bears.
我们要非常擅长于逃脱熊的追赶。
But mostly, we have to persevere in spite of all the stuff stacked against us.
但在大多数时间里，我们必须要坚持不懈，即使所有的事情都跟我们作对。
And we have to follow our intuition and our experiences and ask really good questions.
我们必须要遵从自己的直觉和经验，然后提出有价值的问题。
And then we've got to gather our data and then go verify.
之后我们还得收集并且核实数据。
For me, I've conducted and published hundreds of experiments in the forest.
对我来说，我在森林中已经进行和发表过上百次的实验了。
Some of my oldest experimental plantations are now over 30 years old.
有一些我最早进行实验的种植园到现在已经超过30年了。
You can check them out. That's how forest science works.
你可以去看看它们。这才是搞林业学应该做的事。
So now I want to talk about the science. How were paper birch and Douglas fir communicating?
那么现在我想谈一谈科学本身了。纸皮桦和花旗松到底是怎么交流的呢？
Well, it turns out they were conversing not only in the language of carbon
实际上，它们不仅仅使用碳元素作为它们交流的语言，
but also nitrogen and phosphorus and water and defense signals and allele chemicals and hormones -- information.
其实还有氮元素和磷元素，还有水、防卫信号、等位基因化学物和激素--这些都是信息。
And you know, I have to tell you, before me, scientists had thought that this belowground mutualistic symbiosis called a mycorrhiza was involved.
你知道吗，我得告诉你们，在我之前的科学家们都认为，这种地下的互惠共生现象是因为一种菌根介入其中的。
Mycorrhiza literally means "fungus root." You see their reproductive organs when you walk through the forest. They're the mushrooms.
菌根的字面意思就是“真菌的根部”。当你穿行在森林中时，你经常都能看到它们的繁殖器官。它们就是蘑菇。
The mushrooms, though, are just the tip of the iceberg, because coming out of those stems are fungal threads that form a mycelium,
而其实那些蘑菇仅仅是冰山一角，因为从那些树干里冒出来的菌丝生成了菌丝体，
and that mycelium infects and colonizes the roots of all the trees and plants.
菌丝体会感染和占领树木和植物的根。
And where the fungal cells interact with the root cells, there's a trade of carbon for nutrients,
在真菌细胞和根细胞交流的地方，时时刻刻都发生着为了获取营养的碳交易，
and that fungus gets those nutrients by growing through the soil and coating every soil particle.
真菌靠着在土地里生长，并且覆盖住所有的土壤颗粒来获取养分。
The web is so dense that there can be hundreds of kilometers of mycelium under a single footstep.
这个网络无比密集，以至于在你每走过一步脚下的菌丝连起来，可以有几百公里长。
And not only that, that mycelium connects different individuals in the forest,
不仅如此，菌丝跟森林中其它的个体也都有联系，
individuals not only of the same species but between species, like birch and fir, and it works kind of like the Internet.
这种联系不仅仅在单一的种类中存在，在不同种类之间也存在，比如纸皮桦和花旗松。而且它的工作原理就像是互联网一样。
You see, like all networks, mycorrhizal networks have nodes and links.
你们看，就像所有的网络一样，真菌的网络中也有节点和链接。
We made this map by examining the short sequences of DNA of every tree and every fungal individual in a patch of Douglas fir forest.
我们在一片花旗松森林中的所有树和所有真菌中，提取了它们的DNA短序列，并且制作了这份遗传图。
In this picture, the circles represent the Douglas fir, or the nodes, and the lines represent the interlinking fungal highways, or the links.
在这张图片上，圆圈，也就是那些节点，代表花旗松，直线，也就是那些链接，代表着互相连接的真菌干线。
The biggest, darkest nodes are the busiest nodes.
那些最大的、颜色最深的节点，就是最繁忙的节点。
We call those hub trees, or more fondly, mother trees,
我们把它们称作中心树，或者更亲切地称之为母树，
because it turns out that those hub trees nurture their young, the ones growing in the understory.
因为事实证明，这些中心树哺育着它们的小树，那些小树都处在林下叶层。
And if you can see those yellow dots, those are the young seedlings that have established within the network of the old mother trees.
如果你们看见那些黄色的点，那些就表示幼苗，这些幼苗在这个网络中已经和它们的母树建立了联系。
In a single forest, a mother tree can be connected to hundreds of other trees. And using our isotope tracers,
在一片森林中，一棵母树可以和其它几百棵树建立联系。通过使用同位素示踪剂进行检测，
we have found that mother trees will send their excess carbon through the mycorrhizal network to the understory seedlings,
我们发现那些母树会把它们多余的碳元素，通过菌根的网络传给处在林下叶层的幼苗，
and we've associated this with increased seedling survival by four times.
我们发现这种方式可以让幼苗的存活率增加四倍。
Now, we know we all favor our own children, and I wondered, could Douglas fir recognize its own kin, like mama grizzly and her cub?
现在我们都知道，我们爱自己的孩子，所以我想，花旗松能认出来自己的孩子吗？就想灰熊妈妈和她的熊宝宝一样？
So we set about an experiment, and we grew mother trees with kin and stranger's seedlings.
因此我们又设计了一个实验，我们把母树和它们的孩子、以及一些陌生的幼苗种在一起。
And it turns out they do recognize their kin. Mother trees colonize their kin with bigger mycorrhizal networks.
事实证明它们认识它们的孩子。母树通过更大的菌根网络来覆盖住自己孩子们所在的区域。
They send them more carbon below ground. They even reduce their own root competition to make elbow room for their kids.
在地下，它们给孩子们会送去更多的碳。它们甚至会减少它们自己和其它树根部的竞争，来为它们的孩子们创造更多的活动空间。
When mother trees are injured or dying, they also send messages of wisdom on to the next generation of seedlings.
当母树受伤或即将枯死的时候，它们还会把智慧信息传给下一代的幼苗。
So we've used isotope tracing to trace carbon moving from an injured mother tree down her trunk
我们使用同位素示踪法来追踪碳的走向，从一棵受伤的母树树干的地方
into the mycorrhizal network and into her neighboring seedlings, not only carbon but also defense signals.
一直向下到地下的真菌网络，再到它周围的幼苗中，不仅仅是碳元素，还有防卫信号的走向。法。 我希望今天我也能改变 你们的一些关于森林的印象。谢谢。
And these two compounds have increased the resistance of those seedlings to future stresses. So trees talk.
这两种混合物可以给这些幼苗增加抵抗力，来面对未来的压力。所以树是会说话的。
Thank you. Through back and forth conversations, they increase the resilience of the whole community.
谢谢。通过反反复复的对话，它们增强了整个团体的恢复力。
It probably reminds you of our own social communities, and our families, well, at least some families.
这可能会使你联想到我们人类的社会群体和我们的家庭，当然，至少有些家庭是这样团结的。
So let's come back to the initial point. Forests aren't simply collections of trees,
那么，让我们回到最初的话题吧。森林不是简简单单的树的“集合”，
they're complex systems with hubs and networks that overlap and connect trees and allow them to communicate,
森林是拥有枢纽和网络的复杂系统，它可以承载树木并且把树连接起来，使得它们可以互相沟通，
and they provide avenues for feedbacks and adaptation, and this makes the forest resilient.
它给树木提供了互相反馈的渠道和适应的方式，也使得森林的恢复力变得更强。
That's because there are many hub trees and many overlapping networks. But they're also vulnerable,
这是因为在森林中存在着许多的中心树和重重叠叠的网络。但森林也还是很脆弱的，
vulnerable not only to natural disturbances like bark beetles that preferentially attack big old trees but high-grade logging and clear-cut logging.
之所以脆弱不仅仅是因为它们会受到自然界的干扰，比如树皮甲虫会时不时地攻击粗壮的老树，而是因为高强度伐木和皆伐的影响。
You see, you can take out one or two hub trees, but there comes a tipping point, because hub trees are not unlike rivets in an airplane.
你们看，我们可以拿走一两颗中心树，但这样就会达到森林承受极限了，因为森林里的中心树就像是飞机里的铆钉。
You can take out one or two and the plane still flies,
你卸下一两个铆钉的话，飞机还能飞，
but you take out one too many, or maybe that one holding on the wings, and the whole system collapses.
但是如果你一次卸下太多，或是仅仅卸下固定机翼的那一颗铆钉，整个系统就要崩溃了。
So now how are you thinking about forests? Differently? Yes. Cool. I'm glad.
那么现在你们对森林的看法是怎样的了？有些改变了吧？是的。真棒。我太高兴了。
So, remember I said earlier that I hoped that my research, my discoveries would change the way we practice forestry.
你们还记得吧，我之前说过我希望我的研究，我的探索可以改变一些我们的林业实践的方式。
Well, I want to take a check on that 30 years later here in western Canada.
我想在30年后，在西加拿大的这个地方做个检测。
This is about 100 kilometers to the west of us, just on the border of Banff National Park.
这里大概是在西边距我们100公里的地方，就在班夫国家公园的边上。
That's a lot of clear-cuts. It's not so pristine.
在那里到处都发生着皆伐。现在不是原始社会了。
In 2014, the World Resources Institute reported that Canada in the past decade has had the highest forest disturbance rate of any country worldwide,
2014年，据世界资源研究所报道，加拿大在过去十年中的森林破坏率已经达到了世界最高，比任何一个国家都高，
and I bet you thought it was Brazil. In Canada, it's 3.6 percent per year.
我打赌你现在肯定想到了巴西。在加拿大，森林破坏率是每年3.6%。
Now, by my estimation, that's about four times the rate that is sustainable.
据我推算，这大概是可持续发展的砍伐率的四倍了。
Now, massive disturbance at this scale is known to affect hydrological cycles, degrade wildlife habitat,
大规模高强度的砍伐已经严重影响到了水循环，破坏了野生动物的栖息地，
and emit greenhouse gases back into the atmosphere, which creates more disturbance and more tree diebacks.
而且又向大气中释放了很多温室气体，这也会使更多的树木枯死，造成更严重的破坏。
Not only that, we're continuing to plant one or two species and weed out the aspens and birches.
不仅如此，我们还在继续种植着那一两种单一的树木，还继续着把山杨和桦树清除出去。
These simplified forests lack complexity, and they're really vulnerable to infections and bugs.
这种单一的树木种类使森林缺少了多样性，这让它们在传染病和虫害面前根本不堪一击。
And as climate changes, this is creating a perfect storm for extreme events,
随着气候变化，这也将会为一些极端事件带来一场疯狂的风暴，
like the massive mountain pine beetle outbreak that just swept across North America, or that megafire in the last couple months in Alberta.
比如刚刚席卷整个北美洲的山松甲虫大爆发，还有过去几个月在阿尔伯塔的森林大火。
So I want to come back to my final question: instead of weakening our forests, how can we reinforce them and help them deal with climate change?
所以现在我想提我的最后一个问题：与破坏我们的森林相反，我们怎么才能让它们变得更强大，怎么才能帮助它们应对气候变化呢？
Well, you know, the great thing about forests as complex systems is they have enormous capacity to self-heal.
其实你们知道吗，森林作为一个复杂的系统最好的一点就是，它们拥有相当强大的自愈能力。
In our recent experiments, we found with patch-cutting and retention of hub trees
在我们最近几个实验中，我们发现小规模的砍伐，把中心树保护好，
and regeneration to a diversity of species and genes and genotypes that these mycorrhizal networks, they recover really rapidly.
物种多样性、基因和基因型多样性的再生，加上这些真菌网络的存在，会使森林的恢复速度变得无比迅速。
So with this in mind, I want to leave you with four simple solutions.
所以出于这种考虑，我想提出四个简单的解决方法。
And we can't kid ourselves that these are too complicated to act on.
而且我们一定不能自欺欺人，因为这些做起来其实也挺复杂的。
First, we all need to get out in the forest. We need to reestablish local involvement in our own forests.
首先，我们都得走出家门，走进森林。我们需要重新使当地的居民融入到我们森林中去。
You see, most of our forests now are managed using a one-size-fits-all approach, but good forest stewardship requires knowledge of local conditions.
其实，现在我们的大部分林业实践，采用的都是一体通用的方法，但是优秀的森林管理员是需要具备关于当地环境情况的知识的。
Second, we need to save our old-growth forests. These are the repositories of genes and mother trees and mycorrhizal networks.
第二，我们需要保护好我们的古老森林。保护好它们就是保护好了森林的基因库、保护好了母树和菌根网络。
So this means less cutting. I don't mean no cutting, but less cutting.
这就意味着我们需要减少砍伐。我不是说不伐树了，而是少伐。
And third, when we do cut, we need to save the legacies, the mother trees and networks, and the wood, the genes,
第三，当我们伐木时，我们需要保护森林的“遗产”--母树和菌根网络，还有树干和基因，
so they can pass their wisdom onto the next generation of trees so they can withstand the future stresses coming down the road.
这样它们就能把它们的智慧传给下一代的树木，这样整个森林就能禁得起未来将会面对的重重困难了。
We need to be conservationists. And finally, fourthly and finally,
我们都需要做自然环境保护者。最后，第四点，也是最后一点，
we need to regenerate our forests with a diversity of species and genotypes and structures by planting and allowing natural regeneration.
我们需要通过人工种植和自然再生的方式，增加森林的物种多样性、基因型多样性和结构多样性。
We have to give Mother Nature the tools she needs to use her intelligence to self-heal.
我们需要给大自然母亲她需要的工具，好让她用自己的智慧来进行自愈。
And we need to remember that forests aren't just a bunch of trees competing with each other, they're supercooperators.
我们需要明白，森林不仅仅是一堆树在互相竞争，它们是无比优秀的合作者。
So back to Jigs. Jigs's fall into the outhouse showed me this other world, and it changed my view of forests.
让我们的话题回到吉格斯。那次吉格斯掉进了坑里的经历，让我见识到了另一个世界，而这件事完全改变了我对森林的看发。
I hope today to have changed how you think about forests. Thank you.
我希望今天我也能改变你们的一些关于森林的印象。谢谢。