第一篇

TOPIC 地球形成

有一篇是讲地球的形成的，先讲了星球大概形成的一个过程。然后具体说了地球内部的硅浮上来，重物质下去。还讲了地幔和地壳的形成。然后还有什么一开始是一些神马物质，后来这些物质就走掉了，还有水汽，还有其他氢啊神马的进来，然后形成最终状态。

解析：以地球为代表的行星等的形成一直是托福阅读天文学话题部分的考察重点。与之对应的TPO文章为Planets in our Solar System。

The History of Earth Crust

The Earth's crust, its outermost layer, formed about 4.44 billion years ago, roughly 100 million years after the formation of the Earth itself. Prior to 4.44 billion years ago, the Earth's crust was entirely molten, due to residual heat from the planet's initial collapse. Evidence that the Earth's crust cooled within 100 million years comes from measurements of hafnium levels in the Jack hills in Western Australia, one of the oldest areas of exposed crust today.

During the initial formation of the Earth's crust, an event known as the Iron Catastrophe occurred, where the denser elements of the Earth's composition, such as iron and nickel, sank to its core, while the lighter elements, like silicon, formed a crust at the top.

The crust began to cool when the Earth was at least 40% of its current size, possessing enough gravity to hold down an atmosphere containing water vapor. Much of this early water vapor would have come from comets. This era in the Earth's history, extending from the Earth's birth to about 3.8 billion years ago, is known as the Hadean era, after the Greek Hell, Hades, for the difficult conditions on the planet at the time. Scientists believe the Hadean era was lifeless.

Around 4.0 to 3.8 billion years ago, towards the end of the Hadean era, the planet underwent the Late Heavy Bombardment, a period of time with many large asteroid impacts. These impacts may have literally shattered the virgin Earth's crust, preventing the creation of any long-lasting continents. In practice, looking back beyond 3.8 billion years ago is difficult, as the oldest rock formations are about this age. The only earthly minerals older than this are individual rocks and crystals, which give less information about the overall global state of the Earth's crust at the time.

About 2.7 billion years ago, photosynthetic life evolved. It released huge amounts of oxygen, isolating it from water in the process of photosynthesis. The Earth built up an oxygen atmosphere, and the oxygen began to bond with most of the elements on the surface, creating huge amounts of oxides. Today, most of the Earth's crust is composed of silicon oxide.

第二篇

TOPIC 帝国分崩

有个著名的帝国破灭了，分成了东和西。然后东比较好，需要防卫的边界线不是很多，还有很多资源；西的话就比较悲惨，要各种防卫，内忧外患。还有西的话君主特别年轻，8岁和5岁还是神马的就登基了，然后权臣当道，等他们成年了，也没有发言权了。然后就说很多人都是为了自己的利益来的，牺牲民众的利益，外敌就入侵了。

解析：本文属于历史类话题，根据机经内容判断，该著名帝国应该是指罗马帝国，后期分裂为东西罗马帝国。托福阅读涉及古罗马的文章话题丰富，遍及历史、政治、经济、艺术等。作为西方文明的重要源头，古希腊古罗马的基本知识值得托福考生加以了解。

Eastern Versus Western Roman Empire Compared

The disintegration of the Roman Empire began in earnest during the 3rd Century. As frontiers along the Rhine River began to crumble, barbarians from the Germanic regions began to cross into Roman territory. Poor imperial leadership, often resulting in civil war between competing would-be emperors, contributed to the growing weakness.

Although many of the early barbarian groups had no specific desire to conquer Rome, they were enticed by Roman civilization and prosperity while frequently fleeing other barbarian groups moving into Central Europe from the east. By the 4th Century, following the reign of Constantine the Great, the last emperor to rule over a unified Rome, the division between east and west was complete.

East versus West in Latter Imperial Times

The Eastern Empire was vastly different from the West. The East contained the largest population centers and the wealthiest cities. The moving of the capital to Constantinople by Constantine added the element of prestige and signified the importance of the East. Dominated by ancient civilizations that predated Rome, the East was far more eclectic and open to competing philosophies and religious ideals. The Christian population in the East, for example, was substantially higher than in the West.

The West was more prone to barbarian incursions as Germanic tribes invaded Gaul and eventually Italy during the 5th Century. Western legions were often composed of barbarian recruits, men that had no loyalty to Rome nor shared common interests related to imperial goals. As civil government crumbled, the Catholic Church emerged as both civil and spiritual leader under the auspices of local bishops whose seats coincided with the Roman civitates.

Although the Byzantine Emperor Justinian attempted to reunify the empire in the 6th Century, barbarian groups like the Lombards, Allemani, Vandals, and Franks continued to separate the West from the East. This separation resulted in the remnants of the Western Empire transforming into a new civilization independent of the rise of the Eastern Byzantine Empire.

Religion, Law, and Culture

Western European civilization has been defined as the product of Roman culture, the Christian Church, and barbarian culture and traditions. In the West, Latin Christianity dominated religious tradition while in the East, Orthodoxy emerged as the primary religious faith tradition. The East refused to acknowledge the Roman pope or pontiff as the supreme head of the Christian Church, vesting authority instead in the Patriarch of Constantinople who was appointed by the emperor.

The East continued to practice Roman law, codified in the 6th Century by Justinian. This code would not be reintroduced in the West until the 11th and 12 Centuries. Western law was an amalgamation of pagan Germanic law, based on the Wergeld model, and Canon Law. With a liberal dose of superstition, such as trial by water and compurgation, post-Roman western law lost the Roman element of due process.

Eastern Roman Empire

The Eastern Roman Empire was the eastern part of the Roman Empire after the one united Roman Empire became too bloated to be ruled by one Emperor, and was divided into an Eastern and Western half. The East based it's capital in the city of Constantinople, not Rome. Unlike the Western Roman Empire, its people spoke Greek, not Latin and had a largely Greek culture and identity. The Eastern Roman Empire also encompassed the extremely wealthy provinces, including most of the Aegean sea, Anatolia, Egypt, and part of North Africa. Though extremely rich, the Eastern Empire was plagued by internal instability and foreign invasions. The Eastern Roman Empire will start off with a large number of provinces, but will be on the verge of collapse. Heavy cavalry will be their greatest asset, and vital to the success of the Eastern Empire.

The Eastern Roman Empire lies between Europe and Asia and connects Orient and Occident. Due to its location, it has developed a unique culture and military. While the Empire's primary enemy is Sassanid Persia to the east, the approaching barbarian hordes from the west may become a considerable problem as well. Furthermore, if the people are unhappy and revolt a Roman shadow faction - namely the Eastern Roman Rebels - can emerge; they are a dangerous enemy, as they have powerful Roman troops as well.

One of the richest factions, the Eastern Roman Empire's army is a mixture of Eastern-style cavalry and Roman infantry (which, like the Western counterpart, is inferior to that of the earlier period). The Eastern Roman Empire has very good cavalry including Cataphracts, Clibinarii (which are very heavily armored cavalry, somewhat similar to Cataphracts), and Dromedarii, as well as excellent archer units. It is also more stable and prosperous than its Western counterpart.

The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized and less densely populated, experienced an economic decline throughout the late empire. The East was not so destitute, as Emperors like Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy.

As a result the Eastern Roman Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire couldn't afford this to the same extent. Even in the case of a major defeat, the Eastern Roman Emperors could easily buy its enemies off with a ransom.

Western Roman Empire

The Western Roman Empire was the western part of the Roman Empire which, later, became known as The Holy Roman Empire. By 285 CE the Roman Empire had grown so vast that it was no longer feasible to govern all the provinces from the central seat of Rome. The Emperor Diocletian divided the empire into halves with the Eastern Empire governed out of Byzantium (later Constantinople) and the Western Empire governed from Rome. Both sections were known equally as `The Roman Empire' although, in time, the Eastern Empire would adopt Greek instead of Latin and would lose much of the character of the traditional Roman Empire.

The two halves of the empire continued to prosper equally until the reign of the Emperor Theodosius I (379 - 395 CE) when internal and external forces exerted themselves to break the two halves apart. These forces included, but were not limited to: the excessive zeal of Theodosius I in spreading Christianity and stamping out pagan practices; corruption of the ruling class; incursions by Germanic tribes; and over-extension of boundaries and resources. The Gothic War of 376-382 CE severely weakened the Western Empire even though the battles were routinely fought by forces from the Eastern Empire. At the Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE, the Western Emperor Valens was defeated and historians agree that this marks the beginning of the end of the Western Roman Empire. A steady decline in power and prestige followed the defeat at Adrianople and culminated in the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus, deposed by the Germanic king Odoacer on 4 September 476 CE.

While this is the traditionally accepted date for the end of the Western Roman Empire, that entity did continue on under the rule of Julius Nepos until his death in 480 CE. After Nepos' death, Odoacer annexed the Western Empire to his own lands. Following the failed attempt by Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths to wrest power from Odoacer, the latter consolidated his kingdom and the Western Roman Empire became the Kingdom of Italy, fully under the control of Germanic rulers.

As Christianity had been legitimized and spread under Roman rule, there were many Christians who refused to let the Roman Empire die so easily. Charlemagne of the Franks was proclaimed Western Roman Emperor in 800 CE by Pope Leo III and entrusted with the charge of protecting and perpetuating the Christian message. Many tales and poems, including the famous Chanson de Roland (the Song of Roland), were written praising Charlemagne and his knights for their chivalrous adventures defending Christian values.

The official beginning of the new empire, however, dates from 962 CE when Otto I of Germany was crowned King of Germany and proclaimed his realm The Holy Roman Empire of Germany. Otto I continued the policies of maintaining a Christian nation following Charlemagne's example. The Holy Roman Empire continued to see itself in this role as an entity championing truth until, through a slow decline involving political intrigue, almost incessant war and constant internal strife, it was dissolved in 1806 CE following defeat by Napoleon Bonaparte. The famous French writer, Voltaire, is quoted as saying in 1756 CE, "This agglomeration which was called and which still calls itself the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire" and historians since Voltaire have agreed. The Holy Roman Empire was so in name only and after the last mperor, Francis II, abdicated the throne, Napoleon disassembled the existing political structure which supported said name and the territory came under French control through the Confederation of the Rhine.

第三篇

TOPIC 某国家民主化的困难

还有一篇讲一个国家内战求民主，但是结果很不理想，想要的木有达到。穷苦民众无力去撼动大地主的利益，然后教堂啥的影响很小，商人首创严重，大地主反而获利很大。还讲了这个国家对周边国家的一些影响，有些国家出乎意料还从中受益了。

解析：机经并未写明具体哪个国家发生内战，但结合回忆的具体内容，与20世纪30年代发生的西班牙内战有较多相似之处。考生可结合以下拓展阅读内容，简单进行了解。

The Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War(1936-39), was a military revolt against the Republican government of Spain, supported by conservative elements within the country. When an initial military coup failed to win control of the entire country, a bloody civil war ensued, fought with great ferocity on both sides. The Nationalists, as the rebels were called, received aid from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. The Republicans received aid from the Soviet Union, as well as from International Brigades, a great number of volunteers who came from other European countries and the United States.

The war was an outcome of a polarization of Spanish life and politics that had developed over previous decades. On one side were most of the Roman Catholic Church in Spain, important elements of the military, most landowners, and many businessmen. On the other side were urban workers, most agricultural laborers, and many of the educated middle classes. Politically their differences often found extreme and vehement expression in parties such as the Fascist-oriented Falange and the militant left-wing anarchists. Between these extremes were other groups covering the political spectrum from monarchism and conservatism through liberalism to Socialism, including a small Communist movement divided among followers of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and his archrival Leon Trotsky. Assassinations and other acts of violence were not uncommon. In 1934 there were general strikes in Valencia and Zaragoza, fighting in Madrid and Barcelona, and a bloody rising by miners in Asturias that was suppressed by troops led by Gen. Francisco Franco. A succession of governmental crises culminated in the elections of Feb. 16, 1936, which brought to power a Popular Front government supported by most of the parties of the left and opposed by the parties of the right and what remained of the center.

A well-planned military uprising began on July 17, 1936, in garrison towns throughout Spain. By July 21 the rebels had achieved control in Spanish Morocco, the Canary Islands, and the Balearic Islands (except Minorca) and in the part of Spain north of the Guadarrama Mountains and the Ebro River, except for Asturias, Santander, and the Basque provinces along the north coast and the region of Catalonia in the northeast. The Republican forces had put down the uprising in other areas, except for some of the larger Andalusian cities, including Seville, Granada, and Córdoba. The Nationalists and Republicans proceeded to organize their respective territories and to repress opposition or suspected opposition. A minimum estimate is that more than 50,000 persons were executed, murdered, or assassinated on each side--an indication of the great strength of the passions that the Civil War had unleashed.

The captaincy of the Nationalists was gradually assumed by General Franco, leading forces he had brought from Morocco. On Oct. 1, 1936, he was named head of state and set up a government in Burgos. The Republican government was headed, beginning in September 1936, by the Socialist leader Francisco Largo Caballero. He was followed in May 1937 by Juan Negrín, also a Socialist, who remained premier throughout the remainder of the war and served as premier in exile until 1945. The president of the Spanish Republic until nearly the end of the war was Manuel Aza?a, an anticlerical liberal.

Each side, seeing itself too weak to win a quick victory, turned abroad for help. Germany and Italy sent troops, tanks, and planes to aid the Nationalists. The Soviet Union contributed equipment and supplies to the Republicans, who also received help from the governments of France and Mexico. About 40,000 foreigners fought in the International Brigades on the Republican side, and 20,000 others served in medical or auxiliary units.

By November 1936 the Nationalists had advanced to the outskirts of Madrid. They laid siege to it but were unable to get beyond the University City area. They captured the Basque northern provinces in the summer of 1937 and then Asturias, so that by October they held the whole northern coast. A war of attrition began. The Nationalists drove a salient eastward through Teruel, reaching the Mediterranean and splitting the republic in two in April 1938. In December 1938 they moved upon Catalonia in the northeast, forcing the Republican armies there northward toward France. By February 1939, 250,000 Republican soldiers, together with an equal number of civilians, had fled across the border into France. On March 5 the Republican government flew to exile in France. On March 7 a civil war broke out in Madrid between Communist and anti-Communist factions. By March 28 all of the Republican armies had begun to disband and surrender, and Nationalist forces entered Madrid on that day.

The number of persons killed in the Spanish Civil War can be only roughly estimated. Nationalist forces put the figure at 1,000,000, including not only those killed in battle but also the victims of bombardment, execution, and assassination. More recent estimates have been closer to 500,000 or less. This does not include all those who died from malnutrition, starvation, and war-engendered disease.

The political and emotional reverberations of the war far transcended those of a national conflict, for many in other countries saw the Spanish Civil War as part of an international conflict between--depending on their point of view--tyranny and democracy, or Fascism and freedom, or Communism and civilization. For Germany and Italy, Spain was a testing ground for new methods of tank and air warfare. For Britain and France, the conflict represented a new threat to the international equilibrium that they were struggling to preserve, which in 1939 collapsed into World War II.

The causes and results of the Spanish Civil War

From 1936-1939, Spain had undergone through turmoil and destruction as they plunge into an inevitable internal incident that wreaked havoc across the country militarily, economically, politically and socially. The Spanish Civil War had begun. There are many causes to as why the war ignited and the list of results is not that negligible either. Causes such as the unpopularity of the monarch, Nationalism, the Catholic Church versus the Army, Capitalism versus Communism, etcetera. The results include from Hitler's position in Europe to the revolutionary paintings of Picasso. This essay will highlight some of the causes and effects of the Spanish Civil War.

One cause for the civil war was the corruptness and the unpopularity of the Spanish Monarch, Alfonso XIII, whose decisions made Spain fall under a scale of poverty not seen in other parts of Western Europe. It had reached a point where the people experienced extreme episodes of starvation. It was said that 'two million agricultural workers in Spain toiled on others' turf, with 50,000 gentry owning half of the land' (Pierre Broué and Emile Témime, p34). This made the Spaniards ponder on the other forms of government that might be able to raise them from their current situation including communism, socialism even considering the idea of being an anarchist type of country.