阅读1

　　版本1：宇宙的两个理论，一个说物质会变化但总量不变，一个是会膨胀，最后说一个遥远的恒星的发现说明后一个理论更正确；

　　版本2：讲的是universe expanding 的两种理论，一个是density在变小。另一种是density不变。因为不断new creation补充变大的空间，然后发现了一种q.它表明前一种理论更可信。

　　解析：

　　big-bang model

　　widely held theory of the evolution of the universe. Its essential feature is the emergence of the universe from a state of extremely high temperature and density-the so-called big bang that occurred at least 10,000,000,000 years ago. Although this type of universe was proposed by Alexander Friedmann and Abbé Georges Lema?tre in the 1920s, the modern version was developed by George Gamow and colleagues in the 1940s.

　　The big-bang model is based on two assumptions. The first is that Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity correctly describes the gravitational interaction of all matter. The second assumption, called the cosmological principle, states that an observer's view of the universe depends neither on the direction in which he looks nor on his location. This principle applies only to the large-scale properties of the universe, but it does imply that the universe has no edge, so that the big-bang origin occurred not at a particular point in space but rather throughout space at the same time. These two assumptions make it possible to calculate the history of the cosmos after a certain epoch called the Planck time. Scientists have yet to determine what prevailed before Planck time.

　　According to the big-bang model, the universe expanded rapidly from a highly compressed primordial state, which resulted in a significant decrease in density and temperature. Soon afterward, the dominance of matter over antimatter (as observed today) may have been established by processes that also predict proton decay. During this stage many types of elementary particles may have been present. After a few seconds, the universe cooled enough to allow the formation of certain nuclei. The theory predicts that definite amounts of hydrogen, helium, and lithium were produced. Their abundances agree with what is observed today. About 1,000,000 years later the universe was sufficiently cool for atoms to form. The radiation that also filled the universe was then free to travel through space. This remnant of the early universe is the microwave background radiation (three degree background radiation) discovered in 1965 by Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson.

　　In addition to accounting for the presence of ordinary matter and radiation, the model predicts that the present universe should also be filled with neutrinos, fundamental particles with no mass or electric charge. The possibility exists that other relics from the early universe may eventually be discovered.

　　expanding universe

　　dynamic state of the extragalactic realm, the discovery of which has transformed 20th-century cosmology. The development of general relativity and its application to cosmology by Albert Einstein, Wilhelm de Sitter, and other theoreticians, along with the detection of extragalactic redshift (a shift to the longer wavelengths of light from galaxies beyond the Milky Way) by VestoSlipher, led to the realization in the 1920s that all galaxies are receding. Edwin Hubble correlated these observations in mathematical form to provide evidence that the universe is expanding. The discovery of the 2.7 K background radiation in 1965 by Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson is regarded as convincing evidence that the universe originated approximately 15 billion years ago in a very dense and hot state referred to as the big bang (seebig-bang model).

　　Observations so far have not succeeded in determining whether the universe is open (of infinite extent in space) or closed (of finite extent) and whether the universe in the future will continue to expand indefinitely or will eventually collapse back into an extremely dense, congested state. See also cosmology.

阅读2

　　版本1：草原上的三种食草动物，斑马羊，还有一个B。他们吃草的不同的部分。把草的各个部分坐对比，斑马的diet最没营养，因为蛋白质少，题目问你斑马怎么吃饱。羊吃的最有营养题目问你为什么。然后讲过渡放牧，他们之间没有竞争，相处的较和谐。羊反而会prefer那些已经被斑马吃过的草地而不是全新的草地

　　版本2：讲了非洲的一片地区有很多种大型食草的哺乳动物，斑马，羚羊和一个什么white的东西看上去像牛他们在吃草的时候会互补，因为他们吃的是植物不同的地方。其中羚羊获取得营养的最多，斑马的营养最少，但是斑马靠一个大的胃储存的多。

　　解析：

　　与OG测试题非常相似，请参考--

　　Feeding Habits of East African Herbivores

　　Buffalo, zebras, wildebeests, topi, and Thomson's gazelles live in huge groups that together make up some 90 percent of the total weight of mammals living on the Serengeti Plain of East Africa. They are all herbivores (plant-eating animals), and they all appear to be living on the same diet of grasses, herbs, and small bushes. This appearance, however, is illusory. When biologist Richard Bell and his colleagues analyzed the stomach contents of four of the five species (they did not study buffalo), they found that each species was living on a different part of the vegetation. The different vegetational parts differ in their food qualities: lower down, there are succulent, nutritious leaves; higher up are the harder stems. There are also sparsely distributed, highly nutritious fruits, and Bell found that only the Thomson's gazelles eat much of these. The other three species differ in the proportion of lower leaves and higher stems that they eat: zebras eat the most stem matter, wildebeests eat the most leaves, and topi are intermediate.

　　How are we to understand their different feeding preferences? The answer lies in two associated differences among the species, in their digestive systems and body sizes. According to their digestive systems, these herbivores can be divided into two categories: the nonruminants (such as the zebra, which has a digestive system like a horse) and the ruminants (such as the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle, which are like the cow). Nonruminants cannot extract much energy from the hard parts of a plant; however, this is more than made up for by the fast speed at which food passes throughtheir guts. Thus, when there is only a short supply of poor-quality food, the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle enjoy an advantage. They are ruminants and have a special structure (the rumen) in their stomachs, which contains microorganisms that can break down the hard parts of plants. Food passes only slowly through the ruminant's gut because ruminating-digesting the hard parts-takes time. The ruminant continually regurgitates food from its stomach back to its mouth to chew it up further (that is what a cow is doing when "chewing cud"). Only when it has been chewed up and digested almost to a liquid can the food pass through the rumen and on through the gut. Larger particles cannot pass through until they have been chewed down to size. Therefore, when food is in short supply, a ruminant can last longer than a nonruminant because it can derive more energy out of the same food. The difference can partially explain the eating habits of the Serengeti herbivores. The zebra chooses areas where there is more low-quality food. It migrates first to unexploited areas and chomps the abundant low-quality stems before moving on. It is a fast-in/fast-out feeder, relying on a high output of incompletely digested food. By the time the wildebeests (and other ruminants) arrive, the grazing and trampling of the zebras will have worn the vegetation down. As the ruminants then set to work, they eat down to the lower, leafier parts of the vegetation. All of this fits in with the differences in stomach contents with which we began.

　　The other part of the explanation is body size. Larger animals require more food than smaller animals, but smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate. Smaller animals can therefore live where there is less food, provided that such food is of high energy content. That is why the smallest of the herbivores, Thomson's gazelle, lives on fruit that is very nutritious but too thin on the ground to support a larger animal. By contrast, the large zebra lives on the masses of low-quality stem material.

　　The differences in feeding preferences lead, in turn, to differences in migratory habits. The wildebeests follow, in their migration, the pattern of local rainfall. The other species do likewise. But when a new area is fueled by rain, the mammals migrate toward it in a set order to exploit it. The larger, less fastidious feeders, the zebras, move in first; the choosier, smaller wildebeests come later; and the smallest species of all, Thomson's gazelle, arrives last. The later species all depend on the preparations of the earlier one, for the actions of the zebra alter the vegetation to suit the stomachs of the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle.

阅读3

　　版本1：古埃及有两种管理的＂机构＂其中一个叫temple另外的想不起来了，起初是因为要管理她们的百姓对水的利用才成立的，后来temple逐渐权利比另外的大了。还有她们的人靠自己的手工艺加强了商业买卖，使得原本自己不平等的地位有了提升。

　　版本2： 苏美尔文明 早期通过建立temple和palace对灌溉系统的进行很好的开发，使得农业快速发展，建立了政权。这里有提到建这些很费劳力，和古埃及金字塔做类比了。 后来随着农业的发展，人们开始进行自由贸易

　　解析：

　　Sumerian civilization

　　Despite the Sumerians' leading role, the historical role of other races should not be underestimated. While with prehistory only approximate dates can be offered, historical periods require a firm chronological framework, which, unfortunately, has not yet been established for the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE. The basis for the chronology after about 1450 BCE is provided by the data in the Assyrian and Babylonian king lists, which can often be checked by dated tablets and the Assyrian lists of eponyms (annual officials whose names served to identify each year). It is, however, still uncertain how much time separated the middle of the 15th century BCE from the end of the 1st dynasty of Babylon, which is therefore variously dated to 1594 BCE ("middle"), 1530 BCE ("short"), or 1730 BCE ("long" chronology). As a compromise, the middle chronology is used here. From 1594 BCE several chronologically overlapping dynasties reach back to the beginning of the 3rd dynasty of Ur, about 2112 BCE. From this pointto the beginning of the dynasty of Akkad (c. 2334 BCE) the interval can only be calculated to within 40 to 50 years, via the ruling houses of Lagash and the rather uncertain traditions regarding the succession of Gutian viceroys. With Ur-Nanshe (c. 2520 BCE), the first king of the 1st dynasty of Lagash, there is a possible variation of 70 to 80 years, and earlier dates are a matter of mere guesswork: they depend upon factors of only limited relevance, such as the computation of occupation or destruction levels, the degree of development in the script (paleography), the character of the sculpture, pottery, and cylinder seals, and their correlation at different sites. In short, the chronology of the first half of the 3rd millennium is largely a matter for the intuition of the individual author. Carbon-14 dates are at present too few and far between to be given undue weight. Consequently, the turn of the 4th to 3rd millennium is to be accepted, with due caution and reservations, as the date of the flourishing ofthe archaic civilization of Uruk and of the invention of writing.

　　In Uruk and probably also in other cities of comparable size, the Sumerians led a city life that can be more or less reconstructed as follows: temples and residential districts; intensive agriculture, stock breeding, fishing, and date palm cultivation forming the four mainstays of the economy; and highly specialized industries carried on by sculptors, seal engravers, smiths, carpenters, shipbuilders, potters, and workers of reeds and textiles. Part of the population was supported with rations from a central point of distribution, which relieved people of the necessity of providing their basic food themselves, in return for their work all day and every day, at least for most of the year. The cities kept up active trade with foreign lands.

　　That organized city life existed is demonstrated chiefly by the existence of inscribed tablets. The earliest tablets contain figures with the items they enumerate and measures with the items they measure, as well as personal names and, occasionally, probably professions. This shows the purely practical origins of writing in Mesopotamia: it began not as a means of magic or as a way for the ruler to record his achievements, for example, but as an aid to memory for an administration that was ever expanding its area of operations. The earliest examples of writing are very difficult to penetrate because of their extremely laconic formulation, which presupposes a knowledge of the context, and because of the still very imperfect rendering of the spoken word. Moreover, many of the archaic signs were pruned away after a short period of use and cannot be traced in the paleography of later periods, so that they cannot be identified.

　　One of the most important questions that has to be met when dealing with "organization" and "city life" is that of social structure and the form of government; however, it can be answered only with difficulty, and the use of evidence from later periods carries with it the danger of anachronisms. The Sumerian word for ruler par excellence is lugal, which etymologically means "big person." The first occurrence comes from Kish about 2700 BCE, since an earlier instance from Uruk is uncertain because it could simply be intended as a personal name: "Monsieur Legrand." In Uruk the ruler's special title was en. In later periods this word (etymology unknown), which is also found in divine names such as Enlil and Enki, has a predominantly religious connotation that is translated, for want of a better designation, as "en-priest, en-priestess." En, as the ruler's title, is encountered in the traditional epics of the Sumerians (Gilgamesh is the "en of Kullab," a district of Uruk) and particularly in personal names, such as "The-en-has-abundance," "The-en-occupies-the-throne," and many others.

　　It has often been asked if the ruler of Uruk is to be recognized in artistic representations. A man feeding sheep with flowering branches, a prominent personality in seal designs, might thus represent the ruler or a priest in his capacity as administrator and protector of flocks. The same question may be posed in the case of a man who is depicted on a stela aiming an arrow at a lion. These questions are purely speculative, however: even if the "protector of flocks" were identical with the en, there is no ground for seeing in the ruler a person with a predominantly religious function.