Lesson Three
Cross-Cultural Communication in US Business

Part I Objectives
Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences
中西文化差异的6种基本模式
A general view of corporate culture
公司文化概要
Decoding body-language of North America
破解北美通用肢体语言

Part II The How-Tos

Identify the Differences ：Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences
了解不同：中西文化差异的六种基本模式
1. Different Communication Styles 不同的交流风格
The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I＇ll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.
Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some Asian, African, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or non-white racial groups.

2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict 对待冲突的不同看法
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.

3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks 对待完成任务的不同方法
From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with Americans. Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.

4. Different Decision-Making Styles 不同的决定风格
The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Asia consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals＇ expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.

5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure 对待披露/曝光的不同态度
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.

6. Different Approaches to Knowing 对待事物认知的不同方式
Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is, the ways people come to know things. Western cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures＇ preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures＇ epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence. Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously overlooked ways of knowing.
You can see how different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and touch, taste and listen to what has worked elsewhere.

Part III Let’s Talk Business
What lies in “Corporate Culture”?
Many articles and books have been written in recent years about culture in organizations, usually referred to as "Corporate Culture." The dictionary defines culture as "the act of developing intellectual and moral faculties, especially through education." This writing will use a slightly different definition of culture: "the moral, social, and behavioral norms of an organization based on the beliefs, attitudes, and priorities of its members." The terms "advanced culture" or "primitive culture" could apply to the first definition, but not the latter.
Every organization has its own unique culture or value set. Most organizations don＇t consciously try to create a certain culture. The culture of the organization is typically created unconsciously, based on the values of the top management or the founders of an organization.
Hewlett-Packard is a company that has, for a long time, been conscious of its culture (The HP Way) and has worked hard to maintain it over the years. Hewlett-Packard＇s corporate culture is based on 1) respect for others, 2) a sense of community, and 3) plain hard work (Fortune Magazine, May 15, 1995). It has been developed and maintained through extensive training of managers and employees. HP＇s growth and success over the years has been due in large part to its culture.
Another successful company that expends a lot of energy in maintaining its workplace culture is Southwest Airlines. Southwest is the only major airline in the U.S. that has been profitable in each of the last five years. It also has a good reputation as an employer. In an article written in the ACA (American Compensation Association) Journal, Winter 1995 issue, Herb Kelleher, Southwest＇s CEO, indicated how Southwest maintained its culture:
"Well, first of all, it starts with hiring. We are zealous about hiring. We are looking for a particular type of person, regardless of which job category it is. We are looking for attitudes that are positive and for people who can lend themselves to causes. We want folks who have a good sense of humor and people who are interested in performing as a team and take joy in team results instead of individual accomplishments.
"If you start with the type of person you want to hire, presumably you can build a work force that is prepared for the culture you desire...
"Another important thing is to spend a lot of time with your people and to communicate with them in a variety of ways. And a large part of it is demeanor. Sometimes we tend to lose sight of the fact that demeanor - the way you appear and the way you act - is a form of communication. We want our people to feel fulfilled and to be happy, and we want our management to radiate the demeanor that we are proud of our people, we are interested in them as individuals and we are interested in them outside the work force, including the good and bad things that happen to them as individuals."
In both of these examples, the top management of the companies were vigilant about maintaining their cultures. The behavior rules and boundaries are relatively clear and communicated often. However, this is not typical. I believe most organizations operate with a diversity of cultures. This is especially true considering the increasing worldwide mobility of people and cultures and values.
There have been some recent models created to attempt to study and classify cultural diversity. One model, the Hofstede Cultural Orientation Model, classifies cultures based on where they fall on five continuums.
1. Individual vs. Collective Orientation
The level at which behavior is appropriately regulated
2. Power-Distance Orientation
The extent to which less powerful parties accept the existing distribution of power and the degree to which adherence to formal channels is maintained.
3. Uncertainty-Avoidance Orientation
The degree to which employees are threatened by ambiguity, and the relative importance to employees of rules, long-term employment and steady progression through well defined career ladders.
4. Dominant-Values Orientation
The nature of the dominant values - e.g., assertiveness, monetary focus, well-defined gender roles, formal structure - vs. concern for others, focus on quality of relationships and job satisfaction, and flexibility